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Knowledge spillover is an exchange of ideas among individuals.〔Carlino, Gerald A. (2001) Business Review ''(Knowledge Spillovers: Cities' Role in the New Economy. )'' Q4 2001.〕 In knowledge management economics, knowledge spillovers are non-rival knowledge market costs incurred by a party not agreeing to assume the costs that has a spillover effect of stimulating technological improvements in a neighbor through one's own innovation.〔〔Jaffe, Adam B.; Trajtenberg, Manuel; Fogarty, Michael S. (May, 2000) The American Economic Review ''(Knowledge Spillovers and Patent Citations:Evidence from a Survey of Inventors. )'' Vol. 90, No. 2, Papers and Proceedings of the One Hundred Twelfth Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association, pp. 215-218.〕 Such innovations often come from specialization within an industry. A recent, general example of a knowledge spillover could be the collective growth associated with the research and development of online social networking tools like Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter. Such tools have not only created a positive feedback loop, and a host of originally unintended benefits for their users, but have also created an explosion of new software, programming platforms, and conceptual breakthroughs that have perpetuated the development of the industry as a whole. The advent of online marketplaces, the utilization of user profiles, the widespread democratization of information, and the interconnectivity between tools within the industry have all been products of each tool’s individual developments. These developments have since spread outside the industry into the mainstream media as news and entertainment firms have developed their own market feedback applications within the tools themselves, and their own versions of online networking tools (e.g. CNN’s iReport). There are two kinds of knowledge spillovers: internal and external. Internal knowledge spillover occurs if there is a positive impact of knowledge between individuals within an organization that produces goods and/or services.〔 An external knowledge spillover occurs when the positive impact of knowledge is between individuals without or outside of a production organization.〔 Marshall-Arrow-Romer (MAR) spillovers, Porter spillovers and Jacobs spillovers are three types of spillovers.〔 ==MAR spillover== MAR spillover has its origins in 1890, where the English economist Alfred Marshall developed a theory of knowledge spillovers.〔 Knowledge spillovers later were extended by economists Kenneth Arrow (1962) and Paul Romer (1986). In 1992, Edward Glaeser, Hedi Kallal, José Scheinkman, and Andrei Shleifer pulled together the Marshall-Arrow-Romer views on knowledge spillovers and accordingly named the view MAR spillover in 1992.〔Glaeser et al., ("Growth in Cities" ), Journal of Political Economy, 1992 Vol. 100, No. 6〕 Under the Marshall-Arrow-Romer (MAR) spillover view, the proximity of firms within a common industry often affects how well knowledge travels among firms to facilitate innovation and growth.〔 The closer the firms are to one another, the greater the MAR spillover.〔 The exchange of ideas is largely from employee to employee, in that employees from different firms in an industry exchange ideas about new products and new ways to produce goods.〔 The opportunity to exchange ideas that lead to innovations key to new products and improved production methods.〔 Business parks are a good example of concentrated businesses that may benefit from MAR spillover.〔 Many semiconductor firms intentionally located their research and development facilities in Silicon Valley to take advantage of MAR spillover.〔 In addition, the film industry in Los Angeles, California and elsewhere relies on a geographic concentration of specialists (directors, producers, scriptwriters, and set designers) to bring together narrow aspects of movie-making into a final product. However, research on the Cambridge IT Cluster (UK) suggests that technological knowledge spillovers might only happen rarely and are less important than other cluster benefits such as labour market pooling.〔Huber, F., ("Do clusters really matter for innovation practices in Information Technology? Questioning the significance of technological knowledge spillovers " ), Journal of Economic Geography, 〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Knowledge spillover」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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